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A while ago, I had to do a little research and write a paper on second language acquisition. Here it is. I thought some of you might find it of interest. Sorry if it is too long. FACTORS OF SUCCESS
IN SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION Between 220,000 and 250,000 immigrants land in Canada every year. Upon arrival, almost all of them are faced with a daunting task of learning English as a second (or third) language. Based on casual observation, a fairly certain prediction can be made: different people will achieve various degrees of success in this linguistic endeavor. Many immigrants will eventually learn to speak fluent, but accented English. The only language others will be able to speak fluently, even after decades of living in Canada, is their native tongue. Their children, on the other hand, almost certainly, will achieve complete proficiency in English and will be indistinguishable from native speakers. Being an immigrant myself, I am fully aware of the formidable challenges that learning of a second language presents. Therefore, I cannot help but wonder why learning a new language is a struggle for some of us, while others seem to acquire it effortlessly. What is it that determines our success or failure? What factors can influence the rate of success in second language acquisition? Is there such thing as a gifted language learner? Is it possible for an adult learner to achieve native levels of proficiency in a second language?
Many linguists, psychologists and neurobiologists have been studying second language acquisition (SLA) for decades in the attempt to find answers to these questions. Various personal, social, cultural and environmental factors came into focus in these studies. Some of them, such as age, motivation, attitude and intelligence of the learner, linguistic distance between first and second languages, were proven to have a direct impact on the outcome of the second language learning. Studies of other factors -- gender, ethnicity, birth order, extroversion and risk taking -- produced inconclusive or, sometimes, conflicting results. Several theories on SLA were developed, none of which could satisfactory explain various levels of achievement of second language learners. Nevertheless, an involved and dynamic picture emerged from the research, the picture of second language acquisition as a complex process, affected by a multitude of factors and intricate relationships that exist between these factors. Success in language learning is determined by not only personal traits of the individual, but also learning environment and the nature of and interaction between first and second languages. Let’s have a closer look at some of these factors. LANGUAGE
From the learner’s perspective, not all languages are created equal. As Aida Walqui explains, ”Specific languages can be more or less difficult to learn, depending on how different from or similar they are to the languages the learner already knows”(1). For example, speakers of German, Dutch and Swedish – languages that come form the same linguistic family as English – will have less problems learning English than, say, Russian or Chinese – languages from distant families that use different alphabet and writing systems respectively. Closely related languages also share a number of grammatical, lexical and phonetic similarities; therefore, learners can transfer the existing knowledge of the native language into the target language. Linguistic distance between first and second languages is a good predictor of time needed to achieve proficiency in a new language. As an illustration, duration of intensive language courses offered to native English speakers at Foreign Service Institute, USA, ranges from 20 weeks for Spanish and Italian to 44 weeks for Arabic and Japanese (Bialystok 34).
In addition, native language proficiency is also believed to influence SLA. According to Walqui, ”The more academically sophisticated the student’s native knowledge and abilities, the easier it will be for that student to learn a second language”(1). Therefore, a strong native language foundation can serve as a support for learning English as second language. LEARNING ENVIRONMENT One of the proposed explanations for immigrant children’s outstanding ability to acquire English is optimal learning environment: they receive formal instruction in school and acquire English naturally through communicative use (DeCroix 3). Surrounded by English speaking peers, children are totally immersed into the target language. Driven by the desire to fit in, they are intrinsically motivated to achieve native-like communicative proficiency as soon as possible, which, as we will see later, also facilitates the process of learning. Adult immigrants, on the other hand, tend to associate with speakers of their native language; thereby, isolating themselves from learning opportunities. In addition, negative attitude towards English in some immigrant communities can further hinder the learning progress. Similarly, unwillingness of the native community to accept newcomers creates limited need for communication, which results in the very limited knowledge of the language on the part of the immigrants (Ellis 231). At the same time, the amount of formal instruction available to adult immigrants is often limited to a few months of language training offered by Immigration Societies, and, after that, giving in to the pressure to feed their families, they join the work force never to return to the classroom again.
There is little consensus in the linguistic world on the subject of formal instruction. William Littlewood, the author of “Foreign and Second Language Learning,” believes that “given the right kinds of natural exposure, formal instruction is not necessary for second language learning”(60). He admits, though, that formal study does help to achieve high proficiency levels. At the same time, Rod Ellis, Professor of Teaching English as Second Language at College of Education, Temple University, Philadelphia, argues that the growing amount of evidence suggests that “learners who receive formal instruction become more grammatically accurate than those who do not” (216). Furthermore, James Flege, University of Alabama, conducted a study of exceptional language learners, who started learning the language later in life, but managed to achieve native levels of proficiency in their second language (101-131). He concluded that the negative effect of age could disappear in late language learners when education is controlled.
In sum, adequate exposure to and positive attitude towards a target language, nurturing learning environment and educational opportunities, as well as a right balance in formal and informal study are important factors that can greatly improve outcomes of second language acquisition. THE LEARNER A number of factors related to the individual learning the language can influence his or her success: age, motivation, personality, language aptitude and intelligence, to name a few. Among them, age of the learner has been found to be one of the most important. Both, casual observation and scientific research, show that young children can acquire new languages without much time and trouble from mere exposure. In contrast, adult’s learning of a second language requires conscious and laborious effort. Yet, unlike for children, native like pronunciation seems to be out of reach for adult learners. For a long time, it was believed that native proficiency in second language could only be achieved if learning began during “sensitive” or “critical” period (usually before puberty), after which the “window of opportunity” closes and the ability to attain native-like pronunciation is irreversibly lost.
This position (known as Critical Period Hypothesis), however, has been increasingly challenged in recent studies. While nobody disputes the enormous advantage that children enjoy over adults in language learning, some other aspects of Critical Period Hypothesis can not stand absolute anymore. For example, the research of Kenji Hakuta et al, Stanford University, found no evidence of sharp cut-off points in language learning abilities. Instead, they have found that “the degree of success in second language acquisition steadily declines throughout the life span” (emphasis mine, 14). Stereotypes about children’s phenomenal learning potential were shattered by the research of immigrant children in the United States who, despite early age of arrival and years of total immersion in the second language, failed to acquire native language competence (Ioup 160-175). Furthermore, several studies claimed to have found very successful language learners who, in spite the late start, achieved high levels of language competence and could not be distinguished from native speakers (Bongaerts 133-159, Flege 101-131). These studies suggested that unusual success of these late learners may be attributed, at least in part, to “the combination of factors: high motivation, continued access to massive input in L2 [second language], and intensive training in the perception and production of L2 speech sounds” (Bogaerts 155). Another important aspect of these studies is that their results support exercise hypotheses, first formulated by Bever in 1981 (Flege 105). Under this hypothesis, adults can retain full ability to learn languages through the life span, but only if they never stop learning - use it, or lose it.
Regardless of the age of the learner, it is undeniable that some people are simply more successful learners than others. The individual differences in success could be attributed, at least in part, to the differences in language aptitude – a set of language related abilities that determines the amount of time an individual needs to acquire proficiency in a given linguistic task. Language aptitude is believed to be separate from general intelligence, even though many suspect that there is an overlap between them: people who score high on IQ tests are likely to do well on language aptitude tests as well (Bialystok 133). Again, there is little agreement in the scientific world on the relationship between intelligence and language aptitude, and, despite years of research, both of these concepts remain very much a mystery.
In second language acquisition, as in any other field of human learning, motivation plays an important role. The purpose of learning a second language is to obtain means of communication. The need to communicate in second language can vary greatly among immigrants. For example, immigrant workers whose desire to return to their home country is strong are not motivated to achieve high degrees of mastery of the second language (Ellis 231). They usually fail to progress beyond the early stages of language acquisition because their need to communicate in the second language is limited to the basic exchange of information to ensure survival. The same happens, as we mentioned before, to immigrants in close-knit ethnic or hostile native communities, where negative or ambivalent attitudes towards foreign culture and language can build strong barriers against learning. We should remember, however, that, within any community, there is a wide variation between individuals. Many immigrants have positive attitudes towards new culture and wish to gain closer contact with second language community. Some of them are motivated to learn a second language for utilitarian reasons: to improve employment prospects or upgrade social status. Regardless of their reasons, people with higher motivation achieve greater proficiency than their less motivated counterparts (Larsen-Freeman 173-175). It is also worth mentioning that success in language acquisition can give the learning process a boost by creating a positive attitude towards learning (Bialystok 140). Higher language proficiency facilitates better understanding of the foreign culture, which, in turn, improves attitudes towards native communities and their languages and makes learners more motivated.
Personality of the learner is believed to have a certain impact on SLA. A number of personality traits, such as self-esteem, risk-taking, extroversion and anxiety, as well as sensitivity to rejection and tolerance to ambiguity, were studied. Different studies produced different results: some demonstrated strong influences of these factors on language proficiency; some did not find any correlation between them (Larsen-Freeman 184-192). General conclusions that can be drawn from these studies are: first, influence of personality traits on the success in language acquisition may be an indirect one, and second, in order to succeed, personality of the learner should not prevent him or her from seeking learning opportunities.
CONCLUSION
It is possible to learn a foreign language at any age, although, with each passing year, the difficulties increase dramatically. However, high learning potential, strong motivation and positive attitudes of the learner, as well as rich exposure to the language and educational opportunities can mitigate adverse effects of aging. In language acquisition, as in almost every human endeavor, strong will, dedication and determination of an individual can overcome barriers built by nature.
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