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link 9.09.2012 19:30 |
Subject: Здравствуйте! нужна помощь в поправке перевода: gen. 5.2.2.1 Specific referenceBy using specific reference the speaker signals to the hearer that she, but not the hearer, has a referent in mind, and she “instructs” the hearer to open a mental space for this referent. A specific referent may be entirely new to the hearer as in example (8a), or it may be inferable from elements of a given cultural frame as in the following sentences: (10) a. That’s a brand-new book, and just look at this: there is a page missing. b. This pub closes at 11 pm, but its after midnight already and there are still some customers in there drinking beer. Here, the specific referents can easily be inferred thanks to our knowledge of the ‘book’ frame and the pub’ frame: a page in (10a) obviously refers to a page of the brand-new book, and some customers in (10b) apparently refers to customers of the pub. In colloquial speech, especially in story-telling, specific referents are sometimes intro¬duced by means of the demonstrative determiner this, as in: (11) I looked out of the window, and there was this woman, and she was going to back up the car, and forgot to open the gate, and ... The demonstrative determiner this in (I I) does not, unlike its normal deictic usage (see 5.3.1), point to a definite referent but to a referent that needs special highlighting as a story heroine. Due to its deictic meaning, this lends greater immediacy and vividness to the story. Here it appeals to the hearers familiarity with the stereotypical frame of distracted women drivers. The speaker may also express vagueness of specific reference by using determiner- supporting adjectives such as particular, specific, given or certain in expressions such as (12a) and (12b): (12) a. At a given point in time they started laughing. b. At a certain age you will be thankful for my advice. The expressions at a given point in time and at a certain age do not express the speakers certainty about a time but a rather vague time. In conjunction with specific reference, the adjectives given and certain have lost their literal meanings. This kind of shift to weaker meanings of words is known as semantic bleaching. 5.2.2.2 Non-specific reference Non-specific referents belong to imaginary, or virtual, reality. Space-builders which typi¬cally open a space of virtual reality for non-specific referents are non-affirmative construc¬tions such as yes-no questions, negations, imperatives, conditionals, and constructions involving modal verbs or verbs of want, need or desire. What these constructions have in common is that the speaker signals that she does not make any claims about the factual existence of a referent but only sees it as having virtual existence. Just as the American referred to in (8b) and (9b) is only a dreamed-of husband, the drinks talked about in the following examples are only virtual entities: (13) a. Would you like a cup of tea? b. No, thank you. I don’t fancy tea so early in the morning. c. So do have something else. Have a milkshake instead. d. Sorry, if I drink a milkshake now, it will upset my stomach. There are two ways of continuing a virtual space in discourse; either the speaker stays within the world of hypotheticality or she switches to the world of reality. All the entities in the above discourse fragment (apart from the deictic words youy me and my (stomach) and the morning) are non-specific referents and can be referred back to as long as we stay in the realm of hypothetical ity. For example, a possible answer to Would you like a cup of tea? in (13a) could be Yes, make it very sweet, where the pronoun it refers back to the virtual instance of a cup of tea. A shift from the world of hypothetical ity to the world of reality is illustrated in example (14): (14) a. I needed a new computer. b. I went to the Mac shop and bought one/a notebook. c. It's absolutely supersonic. Ihe non-specific referent a computer in (14a) becomes a specific referent in (14b). 'Ihe speaker introduces it in reality space by using the pronoun one or the referring expression a notebook. Once a specific referent has been set up in the discourse, we can go further to a definite referent as in (14c). 5.3 Definite reference While indefinite reference was shown to be exclusive, definite reference is inclusive: a definite referent includes all the elements that form its set, i.e. it does not exclude any of them. For example, in “Can you open the window?” the speaker refers to a window that is the only one of its kind or somehow attracts our attention within a given pragmatic situ¬ation, e.g. in a room that only has one window, or that has several windows but only one of which can be opened without having to remove plants or piles of paper, etc. In “Can you open the windows?” the speaker refers to all window's which form a set in a given pragmatic situation — the speaker would not be satisfied if the hearer only opened four of the six window’s of a room. In order to refer to all elements that are included in a set, the set has to be mentally shared by speaker and hearer. There are different ways of making a set accessible to both speaker and hearer, and hence making the referent definite. The referent may be found in the present speech situation, it may be evoked in the current discourse» or it may be part of the social and cultural world shared by speaker and hearer. Accordingly, we have three subtypes of definite reference, which will be discussed in the following sections: (i) deictic reference, (ii) discourse reference and (iii) unique reference. 5.3.1 Deictic reference Referents that are accessible in the environment of the speech situation can be pointed to. This is why this type of situationally given reference is described as deictic reference (from Greek deiktikos from deiktiynai show, point’). In deictic reference it is essential that the speaker reveals the deictic centre of the speech situation. We can see this in one of the sentences of the “zoo story” under (3), repeated here as (16): (16) / thought / told you to take the monkey to the zoo. The deictic centre in the speech situation of (16) is, of course, the speaker, who refers to himself as /; the secondary deictic centre is the hearer, who is referred to as you. To see how important deictic information is, let us imagine a situation where vital elements of it are lacking. Suppose you see a notice lying on the oftice floor which had probably been stuck on one of the oflice doors, with the following message written on it: (17) /I’l meet you here at this door at the same time tomorrow. I his message is, of course, incomprehensible to anybody other than the intended address¬ee. The forms /, you, here, this door, at the same time and tomorrow are deictic referring expressions and can only be interpreted in the context of the speech situation: we must know who the / is, when the note was written, on which door it was pasted, etc. Since the note is lying on the floor, we cant even identify the sender, which is the first and most important clue. This example illustrates the three basic types of deictic reference, or deixis: person deixis (/, you), place deixis (here, at this door), and time deixis (the same time, tomorrow). These three types of deixis show a strong parallelism in that they each distinguish between central and distant regions of reference. In person deixis, the centre is the speaker /; a bit less central is the hearer you; and outside this central region are persons who do not par¬ticipate in the ongoing conversation: he, she or they. Similarly, in place deixis we have a central region here and a distant region there. Eng¬lish also has a mainly dialectal expression for still more remote regions, yonder, as in the shed over yonder. The standard English form that comes closest to remote spatial deixis is over there. In many other languages such as Latin, Spanish or Japanese, such remote forms are part of the spatial deictic system. In time deixis, the central region is present time: now; more distant times in the past and the future are described as then; and times much further away in the past are described as {way) back. English has no corresponding expression for ‘way ahead in the future’, apart from one day or some day, which denote a vague future as in the song One day my prince will come. With days, however, we have complex expressions in both directions: for the past yesterday and the day before yesterday, and for the future tomorrow and the day after tomorrow. These expressions are motivated by a model of moving time. The time units are conceived of as lined up and move from the future via the present to the past so that the day before yesterday precedes yesterday and the day after tomorrow follows tomorrow. In our discussion of the future form be going to in Chapter 9.4.1 we will find a model of time in which the person moves into the future. 5.3.2 Discourse reference In the progress of discourse, mental spaces for new referents are continually opened by means of indefinite referents. Once a space for a referent has been opened in the discourse, it becomes part of the set of referents shared by speaker and hearer. The speaker may therefore refer to them at any time by means of definite reference. This type of reference is dependent on the ongoing discourse and is therefore described as discourse deixis or discourse reference. Two main types of discourse reference are distinguished: anaphoric reference and cataphoric reference. 'Hie more common type of discourse reference is anaphoric rcfcrencc (from Greek anapherein ‘carry up, back’). Here, the speaker refers back to entities introduced in the preceding discourse. In the zoo story under (3), the referents the gendarme, him and the animal in sentence (3b) illustrate anaphoric reference: they refer back to the same referents introduced earlier in the discourse. Since an anaphoric referent is already known, its second mention carries no new information. According to the iconic principle of quantity, something that carries more meaning is accorded more wording and, conversely, something that carries less meaning is given less wording. Anaphoric referents are, therefore, typically expressed by third person pronouns. The main function of a third person pronoun is to refer back to an antecedent referent while keeping track of a minimum of information about the referent(s) such as number (/re, she, it versus they), animacy status (he, she versus it) and sex (he versus she). Pronouns are, however, often used in reference to entities that have not been explicitly introduced in the preceding discourse. Consider the use of the pronoun they in the fol¬lowing example: (20) I no longer care about politics; they are all corrupt. The pronoun they refers back to the unnamed referent ‘politicians’. Such “pronouns of laziness”, which would be frowned upon by very strict language teachers, are interest¬ing phenomena to the cognitive linguist because they offer a glimpse into our cognition. Thus, the word politics activates the ‘politics’ frame, which includes ‘politician as one of its central elements. The referent ‘politicians’ is therefore easily accessible in the speaker’s mental space and can be exploited for anaphoric reference. These pronominal usages have therefore been described as “conceptual anaphors”. In referring back to an antecedent referent by a noun phrase, the speaker may also make use of other, in particular expressive, information about the referent evoked in her mental space, as in (21): (21) a. My car never left me in the lurch. But I had to say good-bye to my sweetheart. b. My car is a lemon. I should never have bought that set of wheels. In (21a), the anaphoric referent my car is elaborated metaphorically, in (21b) it is elabo¬rated metonymically. The second type of discourse reference, cataphoric reference, occurs much more rarely. In cataphoric reference (from Greek katapherein carry down), the speaker refers forward to a referent which is to be introduced in the discourse immediately following. The follow¬ing fragment of a conversation illustrates cataphoric reference. (22) “Do you know the joke about the police officer and the driver?” “No.” “Well. A police officer pulls a man over for speeding Here, the police officer and the driver are cataphorically referred to as definite referents before they are introduced as indefinite referents in the following discourse. The main function of cataphoric reference is that of announcing a referent or a situation that the speaker is going to talk about, as in the phrase “Let me tell you this...” 5.3.3 Unique reference: The case of a category with one single instance Always remember you're unique, just like everyone else. (Anonymous) Speaker and hearer of the same speech community share knowledge of their immediate environment, their culture, and the world at large. Speakers start from the assumption that the people they are talking to are familiar with many referents of their shared world knowledge. Consequently they may simply refer to such entities as definite referents even if they have not been introduced before. These referents are “unique” within the shared socio-cultural world knowledge of speaker and hearer, and reference to them is known as unique reference. We may distinguish three subtypes of unique reference, which are illustrated in the following examples: (23) a. Last summer we went hiking in Yosetnite Park. b. Lets watch the sunset from Jennifers apartment. c. On Sunday afternoons, I take the children to the park. The use of a proper name in (23a) illustrates inherent uniqueness, the noun phrase with a possessive noun in (23b) exemplifies qualified uniqueness, and the definite noun phrase in (23c) demonstrates framed uniqueness. These three types of unique reference will be discussed below. 5.2.2.1 Конкретная (определённая) ссылка |
разбейте на меньшие куски, иначе тут будет "война и мир":( |
жесть как она есть |
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link 9.09.2012 19:48 |
контекст? |
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link 9.09.2012 19:49 |
ой-ё.... |
все экзамплы, на которые референс дается, тоже приведите!!! для наглядности:))))) уж если разбираться, то досконально!!! с примерами:))) (шучу!!!!!!!!!!!) |
а по-моему, это уже не смешно. |
А что, представить тут анл-русск абзацы попарно, а не сплошняком, просто лень было, или не догадались, что людям было б легче помогать? Или спасение помогающих - дело рук самих помогающих? |
Это уже слишком большой текст, правка которого подлежит оплате :-) Без обид! |
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link 4.04.2013 11:15 |
Какая правка? Автор, а "перевод" ваш на каком языке, что-то на русский не очень похоже..... Гугл транслейт, да? Вы хоть читали этот бред? |
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link 4.04.2013 11:25 |
Lets watch the sunset from Jennifers apartment- Позволяет часам закат из квартиры Jennifers. lol! |
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link 4.04.2013 11:26 |
Типа, без палева *ыыы* |
Что примечательно, перевод датирован сентябрем прошлого года, а народ все его поливает. |
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link 4.04.2013 12:16 |
Lorchen29, LOL |
У Лорхен подмена тезиса. Народ поливает не перевод. |
в этой отрасли так и говорят: референция а никакая не ссылка позорище |
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